Marketing Audit for Nike

Nike is an incorporated company that primarily carries footwear products. The Company designs, develops and markets athletic footwear, apparel, equipment and accessory products. Former CEO and Pres. Philip Knight co-founded Blue Ribbon Sports with Mr. Bill Bowerman in 1962 which officially became Nike in 1978.

At first, Nike was known to distribute inexpensive, superior-quality Japanese athletic shoes to American consumers to break Germany’s domination of the domestic industry. Today, Nike Inc. manufactures and distributes athletic shoes to a global market and some 40% of sales come from athletic apparel, sports equipment, and subsidiary ventures.

Nike maintains traditional and non-traditional distribution channels in more than 110 countries with primary market regions in United States, Europe, Asia Pacific, and the Americas (not including the United States). Nike has some over 20,000 retailers worldwide including Nike factory stores, Nike stores, NikeTowns, Cole Haan stores, and internet-based Web sites sell Nike’s sports and leisure products. Nike is leading the sales in the athletic footwear industry with a 33% global market share. Nike Inc. achieved their current status by promoting “quality production, innovative products, and aggressive marketing” in their products. As a result, for the fiscal year end 1999, Nike’s 20,700 employees generated almost $8.8 billion in revenue worldwide.

Table of Contents

Environment Aspects

a. Economics
b. Customers
c. Competition

Marketing
a. Objectives
b. Strategies
c. Tactics
d. 4P’s
1. Product
2. Price
3. Place
4. Promotion
e. Marketing Information Systems

Summary Conclusion for Each Aspect of Audit
Recommendations
Bibliography

ENVIRONMENTAL ASPECTS

ECONOMICS

Have changes in the economy impacted the organization or brand? Is it sufficient to respond to just the domestic economy, or do multinational considerations apply? What adjustments were made? Have they succeeded? What additional adjustments are being contemplated, and why?
In economy, the biggest threat for Nike is if the economy goes into recession. If recession occurs, Nike’s growth in sales, marketing and promotions will be affected.
Another important factor in economy is the maturing market in athletic shoes. There is also a growing adverse demographic change in the marketplace brought about by the sweatshop expose that Nike has not overcome yet.
Effects to Nike’s growth are also affected not only by domestic economy but also by the international economy. The continued weak Euro and Asian recession could potentially hurt Nikes international sales and growth. Nike’s extreme sports product line is seen as inferior quality compared to competitors and is hurting sales and brand image.

CUSTOMERS
How do customer view the organization or brand? Is there a clear understanding of customer wants and needs? Are there different market segments? Are there emerging market segments? What adjustments have been made? Succeeded or not? What other changes are being contemplated? Why?

In 1998, Americans spent $38 billion to buy over 1.1 billion pairs of shoes. Sporting Goods Manufacturers Association revealed that athletic footwear makes up almost 35% of all footwear purchases.
The existing domestic industry focus is on casual and comfortable shoes. Demand is up for the “brown shoe” casual footwear with a comfortable and rugged design. This is because of the increasing number of workplaces allowing casual dress codes.

Multinational customers account for a large part of Nike’s sales. In 1995, Nike’s international operations accounted for 36.06 of its total revenues. The company believes that demands from international markets will increase in future.

Nike must cater to a large portion of the new generation that demands the latest trends and styles. Nike should take into account the changing US demographics due to the rising proportion of Hispanics, Asians, and African Americans. These groups have different preferences that Nike should be able to satisfy. Nike should identify the next generation of loyal customers and provide for their needs.

COMPETITION

Who are the companies or brands with which the organization or brand competes? What are their sales and market share trends? How do their approaches to the market differ from the organizations, and from each other? Are there any specific weaknesses in any competitors that can be turned into opportunities? Are there any specific strength that are major threats? What adjustments have been made? Succeeded or not? What other changes are being contemplated? Why?

Competition is very fierce due to the number of companies competing for sales. Lots of money goes to marketing and promotions using various channels to reach the young demographic group of consumers who spend the most money on Nike’s products. Growth is slowing down in the athletic footwear industry. But new markets are emerging with high growth rates. These markets include extreme sports market and the corporate merchandise market.
Nike’s global market share was an impressive 30.4% in 1998. The closest competitor, Adidas, held 15.5% of the market share while Reebok held 11.2%. The remaining competitors, including Fila, Timberland, Asics, Converse, and New Balance, among others, each hold approximately 3-5% of the remaining market share.

MARKETING ASPECTS

OBJECTIVES

Are there clearly defined marketing objectives? Are they consistent with corporate mission statement and objectives? Are they measurable, attainable? How close to meeting marketing objectives was the organization or brand in the most recent complete year? Should the marketing objectives be modified? Why?
Nikebiz.com stated that Nike’s mission statement is “Through the adoption of business practices Nike is committed to securing intergenerational quality of life, restoring environment and increasing value for our customers, shareholders and business partners.”

Nike shows passion for their company, products, and athletes. They are determined to provide consumers with comfort and assurance. They also find ways to innovate and create. They adhere to their five brand principles namely: inspire, innovate, focus, connect, and care.

Another Nike’s objective is “to be the world’s leading sports and fitness company.”

Nike’s mission statement is similar to a vision statement and is potentially a weakness. The mission identifies the sports and fitness industry business they are in, it does not specify as to what products and services they provide. The mission statement does not mention distribution channels and customers. However, it portrays management’s beliefs and the desire to be number one and remain in the leading position in sports and fitness shoe and apparel industry.

STRATEGIES

Strategies Nike uses for reach each objective? Should they be modified? Why?

Corporate Strategies

The past two decades saw a change in economy from “standardized” to flexible”. Having a strict corporate organization used to be the rule, now it is common to have a flexible organization that uses subcontracting.

The main reason Nike succeeded in competing in the footwear industry for a long time is because they remain flexible in an unpredictable market by subcontracting overseas in countries with low labor-cost.
Another reason for Nike’s strength in competition is their product differentiation. Aside from athletic shoes, Nike’s product line now offers a broad range of clothing, equipment and accessories.

TACTICS

Are there defined tactics for each strategy? Are they innovative, or a repeat of prior tactics? Are the tactics fully integrated? Are there any mixed messages? Should they be modified, why?
Nike’s distinctive tactics are found in the area of marketing, specifically in consumer brand awareness and brand power. Nike’s catch phrases like, “Just Do It,” and symbols like the Nike “Swoosh,” are reminders of the Nike empire.

This tactic is effective because it could not be easily replicated and it offers value or benefit to consumers. Nike is becoming a part of American and world culture, the brand power becomes more difficult to replicate. The trademark and a slogan serves as the company’s fingerprints. Nike is able to capitalize the unique identity due because of its financial strength. Nike reaches millions of consumers through large-scale marketing campaigns. The public benefits from the strength of Nike’s image when they make a purchase. Consumers often associate Nike image with quality products. By associating star athletes and motivational slogans like, “Just Do It,” consumers identify their purchases with the prospect of achieving greatness. This image they create forms a tactic
that competing companies can not easily duplicate by simply improving their products.

4 Ps-
PRODUCT

Is the current product line appropriate? What changes should be made in how products are being handled?
Nike sells a huge variety of products, including shoes for running, basketball, cross training, women and children. All of which are currently its top-selling product categories.
Nike also sells shoes for outdoor activities such as tennis, golf, soccer, baseball, football, bicycling, volleyball, wrestling, cheerleading, aquatic activities, auto racing and other athletic and recreational uses.
Nike began selling active sports apparel in 1979 as well as athletic bags and accessory items. The company sells a line of performance equipment under the Nike brand name, such as sport balls, timepieces, eyewear, skates, bats and other equipment. They also sell a line of dress and casual footwear and accessories for men, women and children under the brand name Cole Haan. The company markets headwear under the brand name Sports Specialties, through Nike Team Sports, Inc. They also sell small amounts of various plastic products to other manufacturers through Nike IHM, Inc.

Bauer Nike Hockey Inc. manufactures and distributes ice skates, skate blades, in-roller skates, protective gear, hockey sticks and hockey jerseys and accessories under the Bauer and Nike brand names.

PRICE

Pricing strategies

Nike uses vertical integration in pricing wherein they own participants at differing channel levels or engage in more than one channel level operations. This is also an attempt to control costs and influence pricing practices.

PLACE

Distribution channels and policy. Should additional channels be added, why?

Nike sells its product to about 20,000 retail accounts in the U.S. and in approximately 110 countries around the world. Nike sells its products in international markets through independent distributors, licensees and subsidiaries. Independent distributors has little or no pressure for local adaptation because the 4Ps of marketing are managed by distributors.

PROMOTION

Are both advertising and promotion strategies in place? Succeeded?

Nike has been one of the top retail industries for quite along time. This is because they sell quality products, customer loyalty, but most of all, its great marketing techniques.

Nike has a number of famous athletes to create a great deal of attention to their products. Nike has signed the top athletes in many different sports such as the Brazilian Soccer Team (especially Ronaldino, Renaldo, and Roberto Carlos), Lebron James and Jermane O’Neal for basketball, Lance Armstrong for cycling, and Tiger Woods for Golf.

Sponsoring of events is another great promotional technique for Nike. It brings attention Nike’s products. Web sites are a great promotional tool as they cover these events. Such events include Hoop It Up and The Golden West Invitational. Nike also personalizes websites. They make the websites exclusively for a sport such as www.nikebasketball.com, www.nikefootball.com, and www.nikegolf.com.

MARKETING INFORMATION SYSTEMS

Is accurate information being obtained and distributed in a timely fashion? Is market research being conducted effectively and being used for decision making? Should any changes be made, why?

Currently Nike utilizes IT in its marketing information systems in a very effective manner. Nike makes use of marketing information systems and apply it to the economics of innovation, segmentation and differentiation for most businesses. Nike has financially emerged as the leader of its industry because of the use of extremely valuable Information Technology, and applying it to every aspect of there development through
their distribution of products. In 1999 Nike signed a five year agreement with Lockheed Martin Integrated Business Solutions Co. (IBS) in its bid to develop further its marketing information systems and stay ahead of competition. This enables Nike to focus on its core competencies.

SUMMARY CONCLUSION

Nike, Inc. is a company rooted in competition. From equipping athletes with the finest sports equipment in the world to continuously improving financial performance, Nike dominates its competitors. Phil Knight and Bill Bowerman vision has become a huge reality in the 20th century. Product quality and innovation have carried them on this far. Despite a changing marketplace for athletic footwear, Nike continues to expand product lines and marketing reach to become a more powerful global brand. Nike should continue their strides in making advances in the athletic shoes technology in order to maintain their current leading position in the industry.

Environmental Analysis

• Internal – Strength

Nike’s management makes analysis on its internal environment and based their decisions on that analysis. Due to Nike’s marketing research, the company made its apparel division to be more fashion savvy. Product and pricing research, made Nike decide to continue its focus on the high end market at the same time increasing its market share in the middle and low price ranges to broaden Nike’s product spectrum.

• External – Weakness

Nike fail to foresee problems due to labor and factory conditions at production locations. This resulted in bad publicity and declining sales as society and consumers call for more “socially responsible” companies.
Marketing

• Market Share – Strength

Nike’s global market share was an impressive 30.4% in 1998. Adidas, held 15.5% of the market share while Reebok held 11.2%. Fila, Timberland, Asics, Converse, and New Balance, among others, each hold approximately 3-5% of the remaining market share. Nike’s market share is expected to rise due to summer Olympics in 2000 in Sydney, Australia, the 2002 World Cup in Japan and Korea, and the U.S. Speedskating team in the 2002 Winter Olympics in Salt Lake City, Utah.

• Distribution through E-commerce – Strength

Nike is first to market with its e-commerce web-site through the launch of its e-commerce site in April 1999 by offering 65 styles of shoes to the U.S. market. Nike improved its e-commerce presence by launching NIKEiD in November 1999. NIKEiD enables online consumers to make design for the shoes they purchase. Being the first to market, Nike enables itself to become established.

• Advertising and Promotion – Strength

Nike’s brand images, including the Nike name and the trademark Swoosh, are one of the most recognizable brands in the world. This brand power is one reason for its revenues. The trademarks coupled with aggressive advertising campaigns, celebrity endorsements,and quality products comprise the brand. Nike’s brand presence was evident at the 1999 NCAA Basketball tournament when 42 of the 64 teams participating wore shoes provided. Nike’s brand-building endeavors are focused on strengthening association with women’s sports. Some examples are sponsorship of the 1999 Women’s World Cup Soccer Tournament and U.S. Speedskating team in the 2002 Winter Olympics.

• Products – Strength

Increase emphasis by consumers on sportswear fashion enables Nike to make strides to appeal to a fashion savvy market. Nike’s apparel line does not only experience stiff competition from its typical industry competitors such as Adidas and Reebok, but also by clothing and accessories retailers such as Old Navy and Abercrombie & Fitch. Continuous marketing research is the key in assessing the market. Nike is planning on starting five structures within its current apparel division to focus on the following areas:

o Women
o Men
o Kids
o sports graphics and caps
o strategic response independently

Nike currently spends more time on developing programs to gain a better understanding of what customers truly want.

• Products – Weakness

Nike may have much success as a result of collaborating with other companies within the sports and fitness industry. But at other times, Nike expanded into markets for which it is not strategically suited. An example of this is the decrease in brands made available due to decrease in demand of in-line skating and roller hockey products at Bauer Nike Hockey. Consequently, Nike had to cease two manufacturing operations at the Bauer Nike subsidiary and was forced to terminate 51 employees. If Nike was able to anticipate the decline earlier, perhaps gradual changes could have been adopted to prevent such kind of limitation. The desire to prevent situations such as these from continuing to occur, Nike has realized to initiate more aggressive program to review product partnerships that are outside of its core basis of products.

• Pricing – Weakness

Nike’s products are viewed to be of higher quality and command higher prices than its competitors. Sometimes though consumers do not agree to this line of thinking. This could be a potential weakness. To substantiate its high quality/high price lines, Nike is placing emphasis on the latest technology and applying innovation towards the development of new products, particularly the Nike Alpha Project which is a new line of athletic shoes. In the past, Nike has overlooked the mid- to lower-price-point products, which could be a possible weakness too. Recently, it is pouring time and money to better develop competitive position at all price points to build strengths at each of these levels. There is a lot of sales potential in the lower price points and plan to meet the needs of those markets.

• Marketing Research – Strength

Nike focuses and relies on marketing research on a continual basis to aid in maintaining the company’s position as the leader in the athletic footwear and apparel industry. The result of such research efforts enables Nike to make decisions regarding its different divisions. It aids in their decision to revamp the apparel division, an area in which offers a number of possibilities. Nike will be organizing the internal business by gender instead of the sport category they are using now. They also intend to carry out more researches focusing in the buying habits of men, who oftentimes are item-driven, and women, who are more collection-driven, with product lines intended to suit specifcally their demographics.

RECOMMENDATIONS

Based on findings, the following recommendations are being made for Nike, Inc.:

• Since Nike’s All Condition’s Gear (ACG) for extreme sports product line has been experiencing a diminishing quality and brand image, it is highly recommended that Nike spend more money and resources to promote the product in turn generating more sales for the line. The ACG line may also require a better product design, materials and manufacturing processes.

• Nike should use its money efficiently. This could be done by including entertainment and other non-sports venues in their promotions. This is effective because there is a thin line between entertainment sports nowadays.
• Nike is currently gearing most of their marketing efforts for the sports footwear lines. To increase sales, Nike should go to other avenues such as expanding their line to casual footwear.

• Nike’s main strategy is in its differentiation. Therefore, they need to maintain their position as the leading brand of the athletic footwear technology. Providing cutting edge design through innovation and application of modern technology enable them to come up with new types of shoes and other products, adding to their growing list of product lines.

• Nike’s business is growing more and more reliant on the internet to conduct business. Nike has developed a new technology that will allow their customers to create their own shoes design online. They must take particular care in improving their website to make it more user-friendly. As of the moment, customers often find the too long to download.

• Nike should also increase their international marketing efforts in order to maximize their product sales. International market is laden with untapped opportunities which Nike should look into.

• Nike must continue to improve technology in order to remain the leader in athletic shoes. This is their competitive edge in order to prevent any potential threatening entrants.

• Nike should also conduct survey on their customers after their purchase on-line to know what the consumers really want. Trends and styles often change. This is why we On-line surveys could save Nike a great deal of time. Nike would be able to gather the information real-time and track it into a database instead of taking surveys on the street or sending them out to mailing lists which is time-consuming.

• Loyal Customer Program is also another program that Nike could look into. In this program, points are added to an account after a purchase. The points would vary depending on the amount of the purchase. Nike could make a catalog of things that customers could buy with the points they are able to accumulate. Nike could also make these points credits. After gathering so many credits, the customer is entitled to receive a pair of shoes. Or, if not, customers could avail of discounts on their purchase whether online or off.

Bibliography

Enderle, K., Hirsch, D., Micka, L., Saving, B., Shah, S., Szerwinski, T. (2000, March 14). Strategic Analysis of Nike, Inc. Retrieved on December 14, 2005, from
http://condor.depaul.edu/~aalmaney/StrategicAnalysisofNike.htm

Johnson, E., Isom, C., Hudrlik, K., St. Arnaud, D. (2000). Nike. Retrieved on December 14, 2005, from http://www.scs.unr.edu/~isom/nikepaper.doc

Pribula, D., Quinlan, Br., Sanchez, L., Schultz, D., Shim, C. (2004, April 26). An Analysis of the Retail Industry and Nike Inc. Retrieved on December 14, 2005, from
http://web.syr.edu/~cshim/Report.html

Smoking in Public

Introduction

It is no secret that smoking causes preventable death and disease. ‘Cigarettes cause more deaths than cocaine, auto accidents, AIDS, alcohol, heroin, fire, suicide and homicide combined (Reynolds, P., 1998).

Reynolds, Patrick (1998) wrote in Anti-Smoking.Org official website that smoking caused 400,000 deaths every year in the United States alone. That equates to at least 1,200 lives per day. The resulting effect contributes to a $50billion annual loss in productivity and additional health care costs.

In the international scene, smoking attributes to two to three million deaths each year. There are more or less 1.2 billion smokers worldwide. World Health Organization estimate a staggering 500 million smokers or an equivalent of 9% of the world’s population will die due to smoking (Reynolds, 1998).

Due to health problems associated with cigarette smoking, organizations worldwide have taken active steps to completely eradicate smoking in public places.

Banning Smoking in Public Places

Allowing smoking in public places or not has been the subject of heated debates for quite some time. The two opposing views of had pulled this issue aground. Smokers believe that it is their right to smoke whenever and wherever they want. Non-smokers, on the other hand, believe that it is their right to protect their lives from the dangers of the second-hand smoke they inhaled in public places.

The gravity of this situation goes beyond the debate on whose rights should prevail. The issue on smoking in public places is further compounded by the number of serious physical illnesses often associated with smoking – lung cancer, heart disease and others.

Smoking is directly linked to lung cancer by smokers. Even non-smokers incur lung cancer if constantly exposed to cigarette smoke.

Smokers argue that their rights should be equally protected. Also, they demand that restaurants and public establishments should be free to set smoking rules. Another source of contention is that businesses might close if smokers are not allowed to smoke in their establishments resulting is job loss. Banning smoking in public places particularly affects bars and restaurants (Studyworld, 2002).

Banning smoking in the workplace could cause a number of inconveniences to smokers. Going outside to light a stick of cigarette could be very annoying especially during winter. Smokers support the Smokers’ Rights Bill to protect their right to use legal substance such as tobacco in their homes and preventing cases of job discrimination.

At the opposite end of the spectrum, we could find non-smokers who strongly favored passing of bills that bans smoking in public places. Their argument revolve around the fact that smoking kills even for ‘passive smokers’ or people who does not smoke but often inhale cigarette smoke thus violating their basic right to live. Also, smoking pollutes the environment.

In a recent study conducted, it was revealed that second-hand smoke or passive smoking is the third major cause of lung cancer in the United States. The health risks due to exposure of second-hand smoke also known as ‘environmental tobacco smoke’ (ETS) are serious. The Scientific Committee on
Tobacco and Health concludes that:

• exposure to second-hand smoke is a cause of lung cancer and, in those with long-term exposure, the increased risk is 20-30%
• exposure to second-hand smoke is a cause of heart disease, and represents a substantial public health hazard
• exposure to second-hand smoke can cause asthma in children, and may increase the severity of the condition in children already affected

Aside from the long-term effects, it was found out that second-hand smoke can trigger heart attacks in some people after being exposed for a short time. People with coronary heart disease and coronary artery disease were advised to take precautionary measures to avoid indoor smoke.

Scottish Health Executives (2004) defined second hand smoke as ‘Other people’s tobacco smoke, either from the burning tip of the cigarette or the smoke that is exhaled by the smoker. Secondhand smoke or ETS has been classed as a Class A (known human) carcinogen by the Environmental Protection Agency in the USA, in the same class as asbestos, arsenic, benzene and radon gas.

A non-smoker living with a smoker is exposed to an average of about 1% of the tobacco being actively smoked Americans for Nonsmokers’ Rights (2004) stated in their report that ‘scientific reports regarding the harmful effects of secondhand smoke are found in the following important documents:

1993 U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) Report on Secondhand Smoke: This landmark EPA document Report on Secondhand Smoke classified secondhand smoke as Class A carcinogen or substance that can cause cancer in humans.

• Congressional Research Service (CRS) Report. This report affirms the abovementioned EPAs report on Secondhand Smoke.

• World Health Organization. International Agency on Cancer (IARC), a research division of WHO, issued a comprehensive report in 2002 that reaffirmed the findings that secondhand smoke causes cancer in humans.

Due to the current majority mandate to prevent the harmful effects of secondhand smoke, government encourages venue operators to set a formal smoking policy. Scottish health Executive (2004) discussed the following options or ways to handle smoking in public. Operators can currently adopt one of five levels of policy:

• Smoking: no special segregation or special ventilation equipment
• Ventilated: non-defined areas, but special ventilation equipment used to improve the comfort of non-smokers
• Designated areas: with spaces clearly defined for smoking and non-smoking
• Separated: smoking and non-smoking areas separated by walls
• Non-smoking: no smoking allowed at any time

Five States, including New York, have laws that ban smoking in the workplace, including restaurants and bars. In other States complete smoke-free laws are under active consideration. Many municipalities have also adopted smoke-free workplaces, including restaurants and bars.

PROS AND CONS TO BANNING SMOKING IN PUBLIC PLACES

PROS

Banning smoking in public has shown some positive results. Scottish Health Executive (2004) quoted International research findings to reveal that consumers, including smokers:
• quickly accept smoke-free as the norm
• that smokers can and do adjust
• that smoke-free areas discourage smoking uptake
• that it does not drive smoking into the home
• that there are no documented long-term adverse economic effects – except on the tobacco industry

The concerns of some businesses, particularly in the licensed trade and hospitality sector, are noted.
International evidence, however, indicates that there should be little economic impact overall to the hospitality sector. It is not possible to say that no pub will go out of business. This is a sector where there are about 5,000 openings and closures over a 3 year period.

The findings of the research undertaken by the Health and Economic Research Unit at the University of Aberdeen suggests that there could even be a net economic benefit to Scotland of going smoke-free of between £23 million and £555 million per year, with a central estimate of £335 million.

Data from New York, one year on from implementing a ban indicates that in bars and restaurants, tax receipts are up, employment is up, openings are up, and the numbers of liquor licenses are up. This was a comprehensive review which took account of data over time, trends and seasonal adjustments.

Also, and very importantly, it is reported that smoking levels in the general population fell by 3% – 100,000 fewer smokers. Because that would not fully protect the public against the harmful effects of second-hand smoke.

In addition, pubs and clubs need a level playing field to compete against each other. The hospitality industry has made great progress in recent years in adopting family-friendly policies and to offer quality food. We have to be careful that any measures we take do not stem that progress or reverse it. Totally smoke-free provision will ensure continued progress.

Ventilation systems improve comfort by removing the smell and visibility of the smoke. They do not remove toxic carcinogens from the air. They are therefore an unacceptable alternative to going smoke-free.

The weight of scientific evidence across the world supports this view. No authoritative institution claims that ventilation addresses the health effects of second-hand smoke. Even the tobacco industry accepts this.

Banning smoking in public is simpler, cheaper and healthier option to end smoking in public places. Better ventilation alone will not have an impact on overall smoking levels. Smoking policies which ban smoking in the workplace have been shown to encourage smokers to give up.

• The introduction of smoking policies that restrict or ban smoking in the workplace can result in a reduction in the short-term effects of passive smoking and improve the quality of the working environment for all staff. Smoking policies that ban smoking in the workplace have also been shown to encourage smokers to give up smoking.

• Ventilation systems have been suggested as a means of reducing exposure to second-hand smoke in workplaces and leisure facilities, but research suggests that the air-flows possible with current ventilation systems are not sufficient to eliminate the health risk associated with second-hand smoke.

CONS

American for Nonsmokers’ Rights (2004) discussed the different reasons smokers who want to smoke in public cited:

- Reports of health hazard due to second hand smoke is not really proven
- Adherents to smoking in public claim they fear economic loss if they ban smoking in their establishments like bars and restaurants.
- Smoking is a fundamental right therefore they should be allowed to smoke
- Ventilation or ‘fully enclosed, separately ventilated smoking rooms, fully ventilated’ is an alternative instead of going totally smoke-free

Tobacco companies’ aggressive advertising in the product has depicted smoking as a lifestyle for the elite. Reynolds (1998) stated that they spend as much as over $4 billion annually on advertising to create this image.

Smoking has contributed to a number of preventable deaths, serious illnesses and a host of economic and social problems among which is the rising problem arising from secondhand smoke.

Effects of Single-Parent Family to Children

I. Introduction

The influence of family structure on children’s outcomes and behavior is one topic that is subject to fierce debate. Children thriving in single-parent households are the object of our study here. The single-parent scenario could be brought about by various reasons such as death ofa spouse, divorce or unwed mothers.

Considering the impact of these family set-up is quite complicated. However, the topic is probably more relevant today than ever because of the burgeoning of the single-parent phenomena in our society.

The occurrence of single-parenthood is an accepted fact these times. Gone are the days when unwed moms are looked upon with disgust by society. The incident of single-parenthood is actually rising with more women opting not to get married or being tied to their careers and not wanting a family.

It is important therefore to delve into the effects of this single-parent arrange to the children. This paper will explore if the children who come from single-parent family will have more chance of breaking the law or not comparing with those who are in normal family.

II. Literature Review

The changing economic and demographic situation in our times has led to the growing number of children spending some part of their growing up years away from one of their parents or experiencing a single-parent environment as they grow up (Cherlin, 1992).

McLanahan and Sandefur (1994) examined the benefits of growing up in a two-biological-parents environment. The authors found from their research that children who grow up in a household with a single parent are in a far worse condition compared to children who grow up with both biological parents. The result is similar even if factors such as races or education vary. According to the authors “adolescents who have lived apart from one of their parents during some period of childhood are twice as likely to drop out of high school, twice as likely to have a child by age twenty, and one and a half times more likely to be ‘idle’— out of school and out of work—in their late teens and early twenties” (p. 2).

However, Werner and Smith (1992) found that if a single parent has additional advantages over two-parent set-up such as higher education or having a supportive family, the children in this environment seem to thrive better.

Unfortunately, single-parent incidents are due to correlating factors such as unwed teens who got pregnant early. Therefore, most of those single-parents are not that educated compared to families with both parents. Women who grow up from poor, single-parent homes are more possibly unable to graduate from high school and are more prone to get pregnant and have kids before they get married (Bronfenbrenner, 1996).

Among the African American community, those with education and higher incomes have more chances of remarrying after divorce. Those who choose to remain single, the results tend to show that the children also fare worse (Cherlin, 1992; McLanahan & Sandefur, 1994).

McLanahan and Sandefur (1994) also found that white, middle class children who are expected to fare better than the others are not susceptible to unsavory consequences. Children from these group appear to have lower grades in school and cannot adjust well after divorce and other family disruptions.

The authors believe that parents should be made aware of the consequences of family disruptions on children. To counter this problem, a combined efforts among the government, mother and father could lessen the negative consequences brought about by having a single parent growing up.

A. The Importance of the Intact/Two-Parent/Biological Family

Harper and McLanahan (1998) found out in their study that boys raised in a single-parent environment, not part of the ideal children living with two biological parents are twice possibly prone to end up in prison. The study took into consideration a host of social and economic factors such as education, race and financial capabilities yet the results are almost similar across all groups.

In another study, McLanahan and Sandefur (1994) found out that children from single-parent family set-up are twice likely to drop out of high school. Girls under such living conditions are also twice likely to have a child before marriage as a teenager compared to children in nuclear family settings.

Children who grew up in a single parent family are also twice likely to get divorced than children who grew up in a two-parent biological family according to Bumpass and Sweet (1995). Zill and Schoenborn (1990) found out that young people from single-parent households are said to be two or three times more likely to undergo emotional or behavioral problems compared to those children reared in two-parent setting.

McLanahan and Sandefur (1994) found that children who grow up with only one biological parent are worse on than children with both biological parents regardless of parents’ race, religion, educational background, whethere were married or single before the child comes or whether they remarry after. According to the authors:

“If we were asked to design a system for making sure that children’s basic needs
were met, we would probably come up with something quite similar to the two-parent
ideal. Such a design, in theory, would not only ensure that children had access to the
time and money of two adults, it also would provide a system of checks and balances
that promoted quality parenting. The fact that both parents have a biological connection
to the child would increase the likelihood that the parents would identify with the child
and be willing to sacrifice for that child, and it would reduce the likelihood that either
parent would abuse the child.”

B. How Do Child Outcomes Vary Among Types of Families?

Comparing two-parent families with all single-parent families will determine child outcomes among differing family typpes. Examining separately the data for divorced, widowed, never-married, and cohabiting parents, married step-parents, and same-sex couple families.

Children may experience more than one type of living arrangement over childhoods. The following are the demographics on different types of families and some research findings on various childhood outcomes.

B.1. Widowed parents

Death of a spouse is not the common cause for single parenthood these days since more than 90 percent of children reach adulthood with both parents living (Popenoe, 2004). In 1998, a mere 3 percent of white children and 5 percent of black children were living with a widowed mother (Sigle-Rushton & McLanahan, 2002). Although death of a parent causes some social and psychological disadvantages but children of widowed parents tend to fare better and thrive best among all categories of children of single parents. Children reared by widowed mothers are less likely to drop out of high school or become a teen mom than children of divorce or children born outside of marriage (McLanahan & Sandefur, 1994).

B.2. Never-married mothers

Unwed mothers are becoming more and more prevalent in the U.S. The number of children reared by single mothers have risen from 7 percent to 36 percent between 1970 and 1996 (U.S. Census Bureau, 1991). In 1996, 7.1 million children lived with never-married parent (U.S. Census Bureau, 1998).

Children of never-married mothers are at risk of undergoing negative outcomes and are among those most likely to live in poverty. An estimated 69 percent of children of never-married mothers are poor, compared to 45 percent of children brought up by divorced single mothers. Never-married mothers are often younger, have lower incomes, less education, and are twice likely to be unemployed compared to divorced mothers U.S. (Census Bureau, 1998).

The increase in the number of children living with never-married mothers is due to the rising number of children born to cohabiting couples, which are often reported as single-mother families. These children may live with unmarried mothers but many do have fathers or other males in their households.

B.3. Divorced families

Before they reach adulthood, nearly four out of 10 children will experience the divorce of their parents, and roughly one million children experience their parents’ divorce every year (Amato, 2000). Research shows that, on average, children of divorced parents are disadvantaged compared to children of married-parent families in the area of educational achievement. Children of divorce are more than twice as likely to have serious social, emotional, or psychological problems as children of intact families—25 percent versus 10 percent (Heatherington, 2002).

C. Single-Parent Homes due to Divorce

The family is the basic unit of the society. Wreck the family and you wreck the lives of individuals that comprise the community. This is what divorce does. Divorce is the dissolution of marriage. Divorce, no matter how congenial or smoothly it goes, is never palatable to all parties involve – wife, husband, kids even the in-laws.

The children often stand to lose the most in divorce especially if they are during the crucial teenage years. Teens often seek their identity from people important to them such as parents. If parents are not available during this period, teens could form negative self-image which could affect their chances to succeed later on in life. Divorce often shatters the kid’s self-identity. That is why it is important for divorced parents to constantly communicate to their kids. Assure them that what happened was not their fault. It is also important to assure the kids of their unconditional love and support. Divorced parents should make the transition as less painful for the kids as possible (Gray, 1998).

The children especially during the turbulent growing years of 13-19 turn to alliances or find new friends to be able to cope. Kids that go through the same experiences often bond with each other. It is not uncommon for kids to turn to these alliances to be able for support. The downside of alliances is if the kids turn to the wrong people. Alliances play huge influences on kids. It is important that they find people that do not lead them astray (American Academy of Child & Adolescent Pyschiatry, 2004).

A large number of children live in homes of divorced parents. An estimated 30 percent of all children in the United States live in one parent (usually the mother) household. Around 61 percent of all children experience living with only one parent at some point in their lives before they turned 18.

Children are susceptible to the effects of divorce. This is because their young minds could not fathom the depth of the problem. A child’s age during the parents’ divorce is a factor in the effects of divorce.
It is noted that immediately after a divorce, there is a marked manifestation of behavioral and emotional problem in all age groups. Infants may not understand the implications of divorce just yet but they do notice little changes in their parents’ responses to them. Consequently, they may show changes in eating or sleeping patterns have bowel problems and appear more fretful or anxious.

Children 3-6 years of age could not fully grasp the intensity of the situation yet. For those who understand a little, they may blame themselves for what happened. If divorce happens when a child is between 7 and 12 years, the child may incur problems in school performance (American Academy of Child & Adolescent Pyschiatry, 2004).

Older children aged 13-19, especially adolescents, can fully understand the situation. They tend to believe that they could have done something to prevent divorce. They thought they could have helped patch up marital differences between their parents for instance. They feel hurt, angry and very critical of their parents’ actions and behavior (American Academy of Child & Adolescent Pyschiatry, 2004).

Some teenagers have this inner longing to see their parents reunite in the future. They cling to this hope. When reality strikes and they see their parents dating other people, these teenagers would resent the person their parent is seeing. Acceptance of the situation would mean the end of their secret fantasy to see their parents back together again.

Full recovery and acceptance of the situation often takes 3 to 5years. About one third of the children especially teenagers who come from divorced homes experience long-term psychological trauma.

Teenage boys tend to show their distress through physical aggression such as bullying. Adolescents do not want to spend time in the parental home after the divorce. They prefer to stay outside and hang out with friends. Divorce is often cited as one of the reasons for attempting suicide. As a matter of fact, recent divorce or separation of parents is one of the indicative points or predictors that suicide may occur.

In order for teenagers to cope well with divorce, it is important for each parent to continue relating to the child even if he/she shows some anger, resentment or aggression. In order for the teenagers to fully recover, it is important for the divorced couple to refrain from arguing in front of the children and must be consistent in their behavior toward the child.

Effects on Single-Parent Homes (Divorced Parents)

- Teenagers in homes with absent fathers are more likely to develop psychological disorders such as antisocial personality disorder, child conduct disorder and attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder (Sadock, et al, 2007).

- Teenagers who come from divorced homes are twice as prone to undergo divorce later when they become parents compared to that of children from stable families (Sadock, et al, 2007).

- Teenagers are far more likely to engage in delinquency, premarital sex and become teenage parents or bear children out of wedlock (Sadock, et al, 2007).

- Teenage children from divorced homes showed poor performances across different fields such as academic achievement, social relations and conduct problems (Sadock, et al, 2007).

- Teenage children from divorced homes manifest more psychological problems than those children whom one of the parents died (Sadock, et al, 2007).

- Teenagers from divorced families experience greater risk of injury, asthma, headaches and speech defects than children from stable families (Sadock, et al, 2007).

- Teenagers who come from divorced homes manifest negative traits such as impulsiveness, irritability, social withdrawal, loneliness, unhappiness, anxiety and insecurity (Sadock, et al, 2007).

- Teenage boys from divorced families tend to be more aggressive compared to those children with parents who are still married (Sadock, et al, 2007).

- Suicide rates for teenage children of divorced homes are much higher than children from stable families (Sadock, et al, 2007).

- Twenty to 25 percent of teenagers of divorced parents manifest noticeable adjustment problems (Sadock, et al, 2007).

What is Phenylketonuria (PKU)

Genes do, to a certain extent, affect human development. Human development however is not exclusive to the person’s genes. The environment though can also influence human development.

Individuals with Phenylketonuria (PKU) experiences low levels of phenylalanine hydroxylase (PA). This disorder causes mental retardation and problems in the central nervous system. Early detection and treatment as soon as after birth could prevent problems later.

Phenylketonuria is largely genetic disorder which means the disease is inherited from the genes of both parents. If only one parent has PKU then the child becomes a carrier of PKU genes. People with PKU do not have the enzyme to metabolize phenylalanine. This will lead to high levels of phenylalanine would could lead to brain and nervous system damage. Protein consists chiefly of phenylalanine. Phenylalanine is an amino acid necessary for growth and development.

The disorder might be hereditary but it can be prevented or even cured by the environment. Having PKU need not cripple the victim for life. Early detection and treatment could eradicate it permanently. And if you carry the genes of PKU, control of phenylalanine levels could prevent PKU disorder.

The environment may not contribute to the problem but it can certainly play a major role in eliminating it. Prevention, for one, is how the environment helps. Part of the prevention of PKU is permanently decreasing the amount of protein intake in the diet. It was found out that women with PKU who have lesser protein intake are less likely to give birth to a mentally retarded baby. Since we all need protein for health, protein could not be completely eliminated but should be lessened.

Women with PKU who are of childbearing age should follow recommendation and management of PKU delineated by the American Academy of Pediatrics. Among the recommendations are: lowering levels of Phe to at below 6mg/dl before pregnancy, twice weekly tests and enough nutrition.

If it cannot be prevented, environment could also be changed particularly in the diet to treat the problem. Early treatment of the problem is the next best option. Treatment should start as early as when the baby turns 3 weeks. Feeding of low-phenylalanine milk should be the main treatment. Children treated early rarely show signs of behavior problems associated with PKU.

The child should have a reduced-protein diet all through life. The diet is customized according to the child’s needs such as levels of hunger, growth, behavior, food preferences, phenylalanine blood levels and others must be considered.

Differences between Men and Women

The differences between men and women have been the subject of discussions and debate throughout centuries. Mainstream perceptions include the idea that men naturally assumed that they are superior over women and that, women are naturally weaker than men. Feminist movements fight for equality between men and women.

The fact of the matter though is man and woman is basically equal. Equality exists in the rights and opportunities under law. But it is a fact of nature that not all are equal. The inequality exists in abilities and talents inherent in each man and woman.

It is naturally absurd to expect that each person has equal talents and skills. Men and women are created equal but different in capabilities. Differences could be physical, mental, emotional, psychological and social.

Physically, men and women are made according to the functions that they are supposed to accomplish and for survival. Men have more upper body strength, easily develop muscles, thicker skin, do not bruise easily and lower threshold of awareness in their extremities. Men are built for physical activities and use of force.

Women have softer curves. Women’s breasts change or grow bigger in puberty. They have menstrual cycles. And women have the capacity to bear children which is not possible for men.

A man’s skull is said to be thicker than women. Women, on the other hand, have more brain cells connecting right and left side of brain. Men tend to solve problems using left brain but women use both sides of the brain.

Psychological make-up between men and women also differ. Physical differences are easily recognizable but the psychological differences appear to be less obvious. Psychological differences are observed in decision-making, women tend to decide faster than men. Studies also reveal that males show more aggression than females. Men do not feel guilty for their aggression while women feel guilty for acting aggressively.

Emotional differences between men and women are also noticeable. Men feel validated by doing shared activities such as sports, competition and sexual activities. Women feel validated when there is communication and sharing of experiences and personal views. Men tend to find sharing of personal views uncomfortable.

Mentally, men and women have different processes in coming up with a similar decision. Women tend to use intuition. Women process several sources of information and find connection in them. Women understand and consider problems at the same time. They seem to see elements in tasks or problems as connected and tend to get overwhelmed with complexities.

Men, on the other hand, focus on one problem at a given time. They separate themselves from the problem thereby minimizing complexities involved. Men understand and consider problems one at a time. They view tasks as less connected. Men tend to minimize subtleties that may be important to the solution. They talk about one thing over and over rather than address several problems at once.

In terms of memory, women tend to recall memories that are associated with strong emotions. Women can easily recall events, information or experiences with common emotional content. Men recall tasks or experiences using strategies that are reconstructed in elements, tasks or activities. Experiences involving competition or physical activity are more easily recalled.

Physiological differences occur in men and women particularly in their capacity to exhibit sensitivity. Women have heightened physical alarm response to danger. Their automatic and sympathetic systems lower threshold for arousal.

Sensitivity enables human to form and maintain satisfying relationships. For men, a satisfying relationship is one that allows them to share activities while women prefer relationships that allow them to communicate and share experiences.

Men often complain that women are illogical and irrational. This could be attributed to the fact that men and women have different sizes of brain specifically in the limbic brain. The limbic brain is responsible for emotions. It is where emotional memories are stored. The emotional tone affects the person’s motivation, relationships and libido. During orgasm, the limbic brain has mini seizure which causes lesser deep limbic activity. Depression is caused by overactive limbic brain, lowering limbic brain’s activity could lead to emotional stability.

The woman’s limbic brain is bigger than a man’s. The limbic brain is the area filled with receptorcytes for estrogen which is a female hormone. This physical make-up of the limbic brain combined with estrogen makes the women highly emotional especially during puberty, monthly period and menopause.

In relationships between men and women, it is important to recognize these differences. Women tend to think and feel differently from men which should not be seen as an attempt to sabotage the relationship. If women tend to be emotional, it is because their physical make-up made them that way. And if women find men unfeeling, it is because that is what they are biologically capable of. Compromise should be at the heart of any relationship in order to make it successful.